Who was Ahmad Sirhindi?

Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624), often known by the honorific title Mujaddid Alf Thani (“Renewer of the Second Millennium”), stands as one of the most influential Islamic scholars in the Indian subcontinent. His name is closely associated with religious revival, spiritual reform, and the defense of orthodox Sunni Islam during a time of significant socio-political and religious flux in Mughal India. His legacy continues to shape South Asian Islamic thought, particularly within Sufism and reform movements. To understand Sirhindi’s importance, one must examine his life, intellectual contributions, and the broader historical context in which he operated.

---

1. Early Life and Education

Ahmad Sirhindi was born in Sirhind, a town in present-day Punjab, India. Coming from a lineage of scholars and Sufis, Sirhindi grew up in an environment steeped in religious learning. His father, Sheikh Abdul Ahad, was a respected scholar affiliated with the Chishti Sufi order, ensuring that Islamic education was central to his upbringing.

Sirhindi received rigorous training in:

• Qur’anic studies

• Hadith

• Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)

• Theology (kalam)

• Philosophy and logic

By the time he reached adulthood, he had earned a reputation as a prodigious scholar. He later became spiritually associated with the Naqshbandi Sufi order, which would deeply influence his method of reform and his emphasis on a disciplined, sober approach to Sufism.

---

2. Historical Context: Religion Under Mughal Rule

To appreciate Sirhindi’s role, it is essential to understand the religious landscape of Mughal India. During the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605), the empire experienced experimentation with religious ideas. Akbar promoted a policy of religious tolerance known as Sulh-i Kull (“peace with all”), and he initiated a syncretic ideology called Din-i Ilahi, blending elements of Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and other traditions.

Many orthodox scholars viewed these developments as threats to Islamic identity. They worried that Islamic beliefs were being diluted and that the boundaries between faiths were being blurred for political purposes. This environment set the stage for Sirhindi’s emergence as a defender of Sunni orthodoxy.

---

3. The Mujaddid: A Reformer of Faith

Ahmad Sirhindi is best remembered for presenting himself—supported by his followers—as the “Mujaddid”, or “renewer,” of the second Islamic millennium. In Islamic tradition, a mujaddid is a figure who appears every century to revive and restore the purity of the faith.

3.1 Critique of Religious Syncretism

Sirhindi vigorously opposed:

• Din-i Ilahi

• Excessive accommodation of non-Islamic practices

• Philosophical interpretations he believed contradicted Islamic belief

His writings stressed the importance of maintaining tawhid (the oneness of God) and the distinct theological boundaries of Islam. He argued that religious truth cannot be compromised for political unity.

3.2 Reviving Sunni Orthodoxy

Sirhindi’s reform message emphasized:

• Strict adherence to Shariah

• Restoration of orthodox Sunni theology (particularly Hanafi jurisprudence)

• Purification of Islamic belief from innovations (bid‘ah)

• Strengthening the authority of Islamic law in society

His influence played a role in shaping the more conservative religious environment under Emperor Jahangir and Aurangzeb, although the extent of his direct influence on Mughal policy is debated among historians.

---

4. Contribution to Sufism: Balancing Law and Spirituality

While he was a firm defender of Sunni orthodoxy, Sirhindi was also a Sufi master. His greatest intellectual contribution may lie in his reinterpretation and reform of Sufi concepts.

4.1 Rejecting Excessive Mysticism

Sirhindi criticized certain Sufi metaphysical doctrines that he believed led to theological confusion. Most famously, he challenged the concept of Wahdat al-Wujud (“Unity of Being”), often associated with Ibn Arabi, arguing that it could be misunderstood as pantheistic.

4.2 Promoting Wahdat al-Shuhud

Instead, he proposed Wahdat al-Shuhud (“Unity of Witnessing”), a view emphasizing:

• The transcendence of God

• The distinction between Creator and creation

• The idea that mystical experiences reflect a state of perception, not metaphysical unity

This became a core theological principle in the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi order and influenced many later revivalist movements.

4.3 Integrating Shariah with Sufism

For Sirhindi, Sufism was not separate from Islamic law—it was a means to deepen one’s commitment to it. He insisted that spiritual progress must occur within the boundaries of Shariah, not outside them. This approach reshaped Sufi attitudes in the region, steering them away from antinomian tendencies and anchoring mysticism firmly within orthodoxy.

---

5. The Maktubat: His Intellectual Legacy

Sirhindi’s ideas are preserved primarily in his collection of letters known as Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani. These letters, written to disciples, scholars, nobles, and rulers, serve as a blueprint for his reformist agenda.

The Maktubat covers themes such as:

• Spiritual discipline

• Proper Sufi practice

• Political guidance

• Defense of Sunni orthodoxy

• Critique of syncretism and heterodox beliefs

• Ethical and moral instruction

These letters became widely circulated and revered within the Naqshbandi order, spreading his influence far beyond his lifetime.

---

6. Influence on Later Islamic Movements

Ahmad Sirhindi’s legacy shaped Islamic thought across centuries.

6.1 Impact on the Naqshbandi Order

His followers established the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi lineage, which became the dominant branch in South Asia and spread to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.

6.2 Inspiration for Reform Movements

Many later reformers drew inspiration from Sirhindi’s emphasis on:

• Revival of orthodoxy

• Opposition to syncretism

• Integration of spirituality and Shariah

His influence can be traced in movements such as:

• Shah Waliullah’s revival in Delhi

• The Deobandi tradition

• Various anti-colonial Islamic organizations

6.3 Political and Intellectual Influence

Although Sirhindi did not lead a political movement, his ideas contributed to shaping Muslim identity and consciousness in India. His defense of Islamic boundaries became especially significant during later periods of political change, including colonial rule.

---

7. Controversies and Critiques

Scholars continue to debate Sirhindi’s role and legacy.

7.1 Views on Non-Muslims

Some critics argue that his opposition to Akbar’s policies promoted exclusivist ideas. Others stress that his main concern was theological integrity, not political intolerance.

7.2 Interpretation of His Influence

While some traditionists credit him with “saving Islam” in India, modern historians suggest his impact was substantial but more nuanced, as Mughal religious policies evolved for various reasons.

Despite these debates, there is no doubt that Sirhindi shaped centuries of Islamic intellectual life.

---

8. Conclusion: Why Ahmad Sirhindi Still Matters

Ahmad Sirhindi was a scholar, Sufi, reformer, and spiritual revivalist whose work sought to restore Islamic orthodoxy during a complex moment in South Asian history. His contributions to theology, Sufism, and Islamic revival movements gave him a lasting legacy that continues to influence Muslim societies today.

By championing the balance between spiritual depth and legal rigor, and by defending the integrity of Islamic belief in a pluralistic empire, he became a central figure in shaping the religious identity of the region. Whether one views him as a strict reformer, a spiritual guide, or a theological innovator, Ahmad Sirhindi remains essential to understanding the evolution of Islamic thought in South Asia.

Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas and the Islamization of Knowledge

Introduction

The twentieth century witnessed profound debates about the relationship between religion, modernity, and education in the Muslim world. Among the most influential Muslim intellectuals to address these questions was Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, a Malaysian philosopher, linguist, and historian of ideas. His theory of the Islamization of knowledge remains one of the most significant intellectual projects in contemporary Islamic thought. Al-Attas proposed not a rejection of modern science or scholarship, but a deep reorientation of their epistemological foundations to align with Islamic worldview and values.

---

The Intellectual Background

Born in 1931 in Bogor, Indonesia, and raised in Malaysia, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas received a rich blend of traditional Islamic and modern Western education. He studied at the Malay College Kuala Kangsar, the University of Malaya, McGill University in Canada, and the University of London, where he earned a PhD in Islamic philosophy. This diverse background enabled him to engage both Islamic scholarship and Western academic traditions with remarkable sophistication.

Al-Attas became one of the early architects of Islamic higher education reform in the modern era. He founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC) in Kuala Lumpur, a pioneering institution that embodied his vision of harmonizing intellectual rigor with spiritual integrity. His major works—such as Islam and Secularism (1978), The Concept of Education in Islam (1980), and Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam (1995)—lay the philosophical foundation for what he called the Islamization of contemporary knowledge.

---

The Problem of Secularization

Al-Attas began with a diagnosis of the modern world’s crisis: the dominance of a secular worldview that had gradually displaced the sacred from knowledge, ethics, and public life. He argued that Western civilization’s intellectual history—shaped by the Renaissance, Enlightenment, and scientific revolution—produced a worldview that separated reason from revelation, and knowledge from ultimate purpose.

In his view, secularization is not merely the decline of religious practice, but a deep cultural process that redefines reality itself. It transforms knowledge into an autonomous, value-neutral enterprise concerned only with empirical or utilitarian ends. This, Al-Attas warned, leads to confusion of knowledge (ta’dil al-ma‘rifah)—a disordered understanding of reality that generates moral and social chaos.

Muslim societies, having adopted modern educational systems imported from colonial powers, absorbed these secular assumptions without realizing their philosophical implications. As a result, Muslim students might study science, economics, or sociology through frameworks rooted in materialism, relativism, or humanism—all of which contradict the Islamic conception of existence.

---

The Meaning of the Islamization of Knowledge

Against this background, Al-Attas proposed the Islamization of knowledge as an intellectual and spiritual corrective. He defined it not as the rejection of Western science or the mere insertion of Islamic terminology into modern disciplines, but as a systematic purification and reorientation of knowledge from secular and materialist elements.

To Islamize knowledge, he argued, means to:

1. Free knowledge from the secular worldview that detaches it from God, revelation, and the ethical purpose of life.

2. Reintegrate knowledge within the Islamic worldview, where all forms of inquiry are subordinate to tawḥīd (the unity of God).

3. Reconstruct the disciplines of science, philosophy, social studies, and humanities so that they reflect Islamic metaphysics, ethics, and aims.

For Al-Attas, knowledge (‘ilm) is not value-neutral—it carries moral and metaphysical implications. True knowledge should lead to adab, a term he used to mean proper discipline of the soul, recognition of right order, and justice in one’s relationship with God, self, and society. Education, therefore, is not merely about information or technical skill but about cultivating a virtuous, well-ordered soul that mirrors the divine order of the cosmos.

---

Tawḥīd as the Epistemological Foundation

Central to Al-Attas’s thought is the concept of tawḥīd, or the oneness of God. He saw tawḥīd not only as a theological principle but as an epistemological and ontological key to understanding all reality. In the Islamic worldview, everything in existence derives meaning from its relationship with God. Knowledge, therefore, must reflect this unity and hierarchy.

This contrasts sharply with the modern secular notion of fragmented, compartmentalized knowledge. In secular systems, disciplines such as biology, economics, or ethics operate independently, often with conflicting assumptions about truth and human purpose. The Islamization of knowledge, in Al-Attas’s view, restores coherence by recognizing that all truths ultimately converge in the divine source of Truth.

---

The Role of Language and Conceptual Frameworks

Al-Attas paid particular attention to language as a vessel of worldview. He argued that modern Muslims had uncritically adopted Western scientific and philosophical terms—such as religion, rationality, progress, and freedom—without understanding their secular origins. These borrowed concepts subtly reshape Muslim consciousness, leading to confusion about key Islamic ideas.

Hence, one of his major contributions was the dewesternization of key concepts. He sought to recover authentic Islamic categories of thought, grounded in Arabic and Qur’anic terminology. For example, he distinguished between ‘ilm (knowledge), ma‘rifah (recognition), and hikmah (wisdom), emphasizing that knowledge in Islam carries an inherently moral and spiritual dimension.

Language, in this sense, becomes a battlefield of meaning. To Islamize knowledge, one must also Islamize the conceptual vocabulary through which knowledge is expressed.

---

Education as the Instrument of Islamization

For Al-Attas, the reform of knowledge begins with the reform of education. The Muslim world’s educational crisis, he argued, stems from adopting secular models that focus on producing skilled workers rather than morally and spiritually balanced individuals.

He envisioned an Islamic system of education that integrates intellectual, ethical, and spiritual training. Such an education would:

• Base all disciplines on the Islamic worldview rooted in tawḥīd.

• Cultivate adab—discipline of the intellect and soul.

• Reconnect reason with revelation, and science with ethics.

At ISTAC and later at other institutions influenced by his ideas, Al-Attas sought to implement this vision by creating curricula that combined rigorous academic study with spiritual and philosophical grounding.

---

Influence and Criticism

Al-Attas’s theory inspired a broad movement in Muslim intellectual circles, especially in Malaysia, Indonesia, and parts of the Middle East. It influenced thinkers such as Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, who developed a parallel (though distinct) concept of the Islamization of knowledge in the United States.

However, Al-Attas’s approach also faced criticism. Some argued that his project was overly philosophical and lacked practical strategies for reforming modern disciplines like physics or economics. Others felt that the term “Islamization of knowledge” risked isolating Muslims from global intellectual exchange. Al-Attas, however, maintained that his aim was not isolation but restoration of intellectual integrity—to engage the modern world from an Islamic center of gravity rather than its periphery.

---

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

Today, decades after Al-Attas first articulated his vision, his ideas remain highly relevant. The rapid globalization of secular knowledge, the moral dilemmas of technology, and the crisis of meaning in education have renewed interest in his thought. Universities across the Muslim world continue to grapple with how to integrate faith and reason without compromising academic excellence.

Al-Attas offers a profound reminder that the crisis of modern education is ultimately a crisis of worldview. His call for the Islamization of knowledge is not a nostalgic return to the past but a bold attempt to realign human understanding with divine purpose. It challenges Muslims to participate in global intellectual life while remaining faithful to their spiritual and moral principles.

---

Conclusion

Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas stands as one of the foremost Muslim philosophers of the modern era. His vision of the Islamization of knowledge goes beyond reforming curriculum—it seeks to reform the soul of knowledge itself. By re-centering education and science on tawḥīd, adab, and divine purpose, Al-Attas invites humanity to rediscover the harmony between reason and revelation.

In an age where information abounds but wisdom diminishes, his message remains urgent: knowledge must be pursued not merely for power or profit, but for the realization of truth, justice, and spiritual balance. Only then can education truly fulfill its ultimate goal—to cultivate the good human being (al-insān al-ṣāliḥ) who lives in harmony with God, self, and the world.

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi and the Islamization of Knowledge

Introduction

Among the most influential Muslim thinkers of the 20th century, Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1921–1986) stands out as a pioneering scholar whose ideas reshaped modern Islamic thought. A Palestinian-American philosopher, theologian, and educator, al-Faruqi dedicated his life to reviving the intellectual spirit of Islam and addressing what he saw as a deep epistemological crisis in the Muslim world. His central project — the “Islamization of Knowledge” — sought to integrate modern academic disciplines with Islamic worldview and values, creating a holistic framework for knowledge that would serve both faith and progress. Al-Faruqi’s vision continues to influence Muslim intellectual circles, educational reformers, and Islamic universities around the globe.

---

Early Life and Intellectual Formation

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi was born in Jaffa, Palestine, in 1921, during the British Mandate period. His upbringing in a devout Muslim family instilled in him both religious faith and a strong sense of Arab identity. After the creation of Israel in 1948, al-Faruqi, like many Palestinians, became a refugee and emigrated to the United States. There he pursued higher education with remarkable vigor, earning degrees from Indiana University, Harvard University, and a Ph.D. in philosophy from Indiana University (1952).

Al-Faruqi’s intellectual formation was marked by exposure to both Western philosophy and Islamic scholarship. He taught for a period in Canada and later joined Temple University in Philadelphia, where he served as a professor of Islamic Studies. His dual engagement with Western academic traditions and Islamic thought allowed him to develop a critical perspective on the state of Muslim education and intellectual life in the modern era.

---

The Crisis of Knowledge in the Muslim World

Al-Faruqi believed that the Muslim world’s decline in the modern age was not merely political or economic but epistemological — rooted in a disconnection between faith and reason. The traditional Islamic educational system, centered on religious sciences (ʿulūm al-dīn), had become isolated from modern knowledge, while secular education imported from the West had lost touch with Islamic ethics and metaphysics.

In his view, this dualism in education produced fragmented individuals: some deeply religious but intellectually disengaged from modern realities, and others technically skilled but spiritually disconnected. The result was a civilization divided between tradition and modernity, unable to offer a coherent worldview or ethical alternative to Western materialism.

Al-Faruqi’s response was not to reject modern science or knowledge, but to reconstruct it within an Islamic framework — one grounded in the unity of God (tawḥīd), the moral purpose of creation, and the holistic nature of truth.

---

The Concept of Islamization of Knowledge

Al-Faruqi introduced the term “Islamization of Knowledge” in the late 1970s as a comprehensive intellectual project. His goal was to redefine the foundations, objectives, and methodologies of human knowledge from within an Islamic paradigm. This project was not about adding religious slogans to existing disciplines but about transforming the epistemic assumptions that underlie them.

For al-Faruqi, knowledge should serve the moral and spiritual objectives of Islam — to promote justice, compassion, and the well-being of humanity in accordance with divine guidance. He argued that secular Western knowledge, though powerful, was often reductionist and value-neutral, treating the universe as devoid of spiritual meaning. The Islamization of knowledge, by contrast, reintroduces ethical and metaphysical dimensions, linking knowledge to human responsibility before God.

In his seminal work, “Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan” (1982), al-Faruqi outlined a systematic approach to the task. This included:

1. Mastery of the Modern Disciplines: Muslims must study the existing sciences and humanities with full competence.

2. Mastery of the Islamic Legacy: Scholars must equally engage the Qur’an, Sunnah, and the classical Islamic sciences.

3. Integration: The two bodies of knowledge must be critically integrated, allowing Islamic values to guide the interpretation and application of modern disciplines.

4. Creative Synthesis: New frameworks, theories, and methodologies should emerge that are both faithful to Islam and relevant to contemporary challenges.

This process, he believed, would generate an Islamic epistemology capable of revitalizing Muslim education and contributing positively to global civilization.

---

Institutional Vision: The International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT)

To realize his ideas in practice, al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in Herndon, Virginia, in 1981, along with scholars like AbdulHamid AbuSulayman and Taha Jabir Al-Alwani. IIIT became the institutional center for promoting the Islamization of knowledge through research, conferences, and publications.

The institute’s mission was to train a new generation of Muslim scholars who could engage modern disciplines — sociology, economics, education, psychology, and others — from within an Islamic framework. The IIIT developed curricula, sponsored translation projects, and encouraged cross-disciplinary dialogue between traditional ʿulamaʾ (religious scholars) and modern academics.

This institutionalization of al-Faruqi’s ideas marked a turning point. What began as a philosophical concept became a global intellectual movement influencing Islamic universities and research centers in Malaysia, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria, and beyond.

---

Tawḥīd as the Epistemological Foundation

At the heart of al-Faruqi’s thought is the concept of tawḥīd — the oneness of God — which he saw as the ultimate organizing principle of all knowledge. Tawḥīd is not merely a theological belief but an epistemological axiom: it implies the unity of truth, the unity of humanity, and the unity of purpose in all aspects of existence.

This principle rejects both secular dualism (which separates fact from value, science from religion) and relativism (which denies universal truth). In al-Faruqi’s framework, every discipline — from physics to sociology — should reflect the unity and purposefulness of creation. Knowledge divorced from God leads to moral confusion and misuse of power; knowledge grounded in tawḥīd leads to harmony, justice, and human flourishing.

---

Critiques and Challenges

While al-Faruqi’s ideas inspired many, they have also faced criticism and reinterpretation. Some scholars argue that the “Islamization of knowledge” project remained too abstract or idealistic, lacking clear methods for transforming complex modern sciences. Others question whether knowledge can or should be “Islamized” at all, suggesting instead that Muslims engage critically with global knowledge without seeking to redefine it wholesale.

Nevertheless, even critics acknowledge al-Faruqi’s profound contribution in reviving the intellectual self-confidence of Muslims and stimulating debate about the relationship between Islam, modernity, and education. His project opened new conversations on curriculum reform, interdisciplinary study, and the moral purpose of scholarship.

---

Legacy and Continuing Influence

Tragically, Ismail al-Faruqi and his wife, Dr. Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, were murdered in their home in Pennsylvania in 1986. Yet his intellectual legacy endures through his writings, students, and institutions. IIIT continues to publish research inspired by his vision, while universities such as the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) have incorporated the Islamization of knowledge into their mission statements.

Al-Faruqi’s work also laid the groundwork for later developments, including integration of knowledge, a term some contemporary scholars prefer to emphasize harmony rather than dichotomy between Islamic and modern sciences. Regardless of terminology, the underlying goal remains the same: to create a morally and spiritually informed system of learning capable of addressing the crises of modern civilization.

---

Conclusion

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi stands as one of the foremost Muslim intellectuals of the modern era, a thinker who combined faith with reason and tradition with modernity. His project of Islamization of knowledge was not an attempt to retreat from modern science but a call to reclaim the moral and spiritual dimensions of learning. In an age of technological power and ethical uncertainty, his vision remains deeply relevant: that knowledge, to be truly beneficial, must be guided by values rooted in the unity of God and the service of humanity.

Through his scholarship, teaching, and institution-building, al-Faruqi offered a roadmap for intellectual renewal — one that continues to challenge Muslims to think deeply about the purposes of knowledge, the role of faith in public life, and the quest for a just and unified world.

Who was Abul Hasan Ali An-Nadwi?

Early Life and Education

Abul Hasan Ali an-Nadwi (also styled “Ali Miyan”) was born on 5 December 1913 (some sources cite 1914) in Raebareli (Rai Bareli), Uttar Pradesh, British India. Wikipedia+2abulhasanalinadwi.org+2
He was born into a family steeped in Islamic scholarship and pious learning: his father, Hakim Sayyid Abul Hai al-Hasani, was a renowned scholar whose multi-volume work Nuzhat al-Khawatir (an encyclopedic biographical dictionary of scholars) is still cited. mehbooba.com+1
Tragically, his father passed away when Ali was only about nine years old, so much of his education was overseen by his elder brother and mother. abulhasanalinadwi.org+1
From his youth he showed aptitude in Arabic and Urdu. He studied at the prestigious seminary Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama (“Nadwa”) in Lucknow, where he mastered Arabic literature and Islamic sciences. Daily Times+1
He further expanded his knowledge of modern Arabic (including taught by Arab instructors at Nadwa) and hadith studies (including at Darul Uloom Deoband). milligazette.com+1

Scholar, Teacher, Leader

After completing his studies, an-Nadwi embarked on a career in teaching and institutional leadership. In the mid-1930s, he joined Nadwa as a teacher of Arabic literature and tafsir. milligazette.com+1
In 1961 he became Chancellor (Nazim) of Nadwatul Ulama, a role he held for decades, steering the institution into the modern age while maintaining its classical learning roots. Wikipedia
Beyond India, he was active internationally: he served on the Higher Council of the Islamic University of Madinah, was a founding member of the Muslim World League (Rābita al-ʿĀlam al-Islāmī), and chaired the board of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies in the UK. Daily Times+1

Intellectual Focus and Major Works

One of an-Nadwi’s dominant themes was the decline of the Muslim community and the corresponding consequences for civilisation. His landmark book in Arabic Mā ḫasira al‑ʿālam bi‑inhitāṭ al‑muslimīn (What Did the World Lose by the Decline of Muslims) published in 1950 in Egypt, drew widespread attention. IKRAM+1
In this and other works he argued that the ummah’s decline is not only its own loss but a loss to the world, and traced how westernisation, materialism and detachment from Islamic moral/spiritual roots contributed to the crisis. ABIM+1
Another major contribution was biography and historical work: his multi-volume autobiography Karvān-e Zindagī, his biographies of Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed and other personalities, and works on literature and Arabic language. mehbooba.com
He wrote more than 50 books in Arabic and Urdu; many of his works have been translated into English, Bahasa, Persian and other languages. Daily Times+1

Social and Reformist Engagement

An-Nadwi was more than a scholar isolated in books: he engaged with social, educational and revivalist aspects of Muslim life. He had a lifelong association with the revivalist movement Tablighi Jamaat, promoting grassroots religious reform and personal piety. Wikipedia
He emphasised moral renewal (taḥdhīb al-akhlaq), community awakening, the cultivation of character, and the importance of knowledge. His view of reform was not primarily political‐revolutionary, but educational and spiritual, rooted in the idea of internal transformation and community responsibility. abulhasanalinadwi.org
While he was critical of certain ideologies -- for example, pan-Arab nationalism and secular nationalism which he viewed as forms of modern Jahiliyya (ignorance) in the Islamic context. islam+1

Awards and Recognition

His scholarship was recognised widely. In 1980 he received the prestigious King Faisal International Prize for Service to Islam. Wikipedia
Universities in the Arab world, academies in Jordan and Syria, invited him as honorary member or visiting professor. His works became part of syllabuses in Arab universities. mehbooba.com

Legacy and Influence

An-Nadwi’s legacy spans India and the wider Muslim world. His intellectual footprints include:

• Encouraging Muslims to find their moral and spiritual footing in the modern age, without simply mimicking Western models.

• Advocating the integration of traditional Islamic scholarship with contemporary issues.

• Producing Arabic works that allowed Indian scholars to engage the Arab world and contributed to global Islamic thought.

• Inspiring subsequent generations of scholars, especially in India, to pursue both Arabic and Urdu, engage with modernity, while rooted in tradition.

One writer summarises:

“His long intellectual and political career, which had influenced the entire Muslim world… his writings … revive the faith in the hearts of the millions of the Ummah.” journals.umt.edu.pk

Key Ideas at a Glance

• Ummah revival through knowledge & character: He believed reform must start with the individual (heart, akhlaq) and extend to community, education and society.

• Critique of materialism & westernisation: He argued that blind adoption of western ideas, loss of spiritual anchors, and uncritical nationalism had weakened Muslims.

• Dialogue with modernity: He didn’t reject modernity outright; rather he sought an Islamic framework in which Muslims could engage modern sciences, ideas and world systems, without losing identity.

• Importance of Arabic and Islamic scholarship: A multilingual scholar, he stressed the importance of Arabic for the Indian Muslim scholar so that the Muslim world would not remain parochial.

• Balanced activism: He avoided extremist positions and promoted peaceful coexistence, while advocating for Muslim character and contribution to society.

Final Years and Passing

Abul Hasan Ali an-Nadwi passed away on 31 December 1999 (23 Ramadan 1420 AH) in Lucknow, India. ABIM His passing marked the end of an era in Indian Islamic scholarship. Yet his works continue to be studied, and his message continues to inspire scholars, educators and the wider Muslim community.

Why He Matters

In a time when the Muslim world faced rapid change, colonial legacies, ideological turbulence and the challenge of modernity, an-Nadwi offered a vision that sought to ground Islamic identity in knowledge, virtue and community responsibility—not merely reactionary revivalism, nor blind modernism. His ability to speak to both traditional scholars and modern-educated Muslims, his Arabic fluency that bridged India and the Arab world, and his moderate, yet urgent, call for revival make him a key figure in 20th-century Islamic thought.

For anyone wanting to understand the contours of modern Muslim renewal in South Asia and its connections to the wider Ummah, Abul Hasan Ali an-Nadwi remains a major reference point.

Who was Tariq Shah Waliyyullah Ad-Dehlawi?

Early Life and Background

Shah Waliullah ad-Dehlawi (1703–1762 CE) was one of the most influential Muslim scholars of the Indian subcontinent whose work shaped Islamic thought, education, reform, and spirituality in South Asia. Wikipedia+2ukm.my+2
He was born on 21 February 1703 (4 Shawwal 1114 AH) in Phulat (near Muzaffarnagar, in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India). ukm.my+1 His father, Shah Abdur Rahim, was a respected scholar and Sufi who founded the Madrasa Rahimiyya in Delhi, and who participated in the compilation of the Fatawa Alamgiri. Wikipedia+2tariqshahwaliullah.blogspot.com+2 Shah Waliullah inherited a rich intellectual and spiritual heritage: a family steeped in the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, the Naqshbandi Sufi order, and an environment that combined scholarship, spirituality and reforming zeal. ukm.my+1

From an early age, Waliullah displayed remarkable scholastic ability. According to accounts, he memorised the Qur’an by the age of seven. tariqshahwaliullah.blogspot.com+1 After his father’s death when Shah Waliullah was still in his late teens, he took over teaching at his father’s madrasa and continued his scholarly work. tariqshahwaliullah.blogspot.com

Scholarship and Reform Vision

Shah Waliullah’s scholarly output was vast: he wrote more than 50 works in Arabic and Persian across disciplines including Qur’anic exegesis, hadith, jurisprudence, theology (kalam), Sufism (tasawwuf), and Islamic philosophy. ukm.my+1

His major work, Hujjat Allah al‑Baligha (“The Conclusive Argument from God”), is considered by many to be his magnum opus. In it he seeks to connect the divine statutes of Islam with human nature and reason, and explain the underlying wisdom (hikmah) of the sharia. Wikipedia+1

In his intellectual and reform agenda, Shah Waliullah argued for:

• A return to the primary sources of Islam — the Qur’an and Sunnah — rather than blind reliance (taqlid) on inherited scholastic traditions. Wikipedia+1

• The practice of ijtihad (reasoned interpretation) where appropriate, especially in the context of changing social and political conditions. Wikipedia

• Plausible dialogue and reconciliation between different madhhabs (legal schools), particularly the Hanafi and Shafi‘i schools. Wikipedia+1

• A critique of certain Sufi practices that he viewed as innovations (bid‘ah), while at the same time affirming the spiritual core of Sufism when aligned with the Qur’an and Sunnah. Thai Journal Online+1

• An active engagement with the social, political and economic conditions of the time — Shah Waliullah believed that revival of the ummah required not only spiritual renewal, but also reform of social justice, governance and economic ethics. tariqshahwaliullah.blogspot.com

Travel to Hijaz and Spiritual Development

One of the key turning points in his life was his journey to the Hijaz (Mecca and Medina) around 1732 CE, where he spent more than a year. During this sojourn he studied under scholars of the Hejaz, strengthened his chain of transmission in hadith, immersed himself in Sufi spiritual practice, and experienced several spiritual—what might be called mystical—phenomena. Wikipedia+1

These experiences strengthened his conviction that the reform of Indian Muslim society required integrating both external knowledge (Islamic sciences) and internal spiritual renewal. His later works reflect a refined synthesis of jurisprudence, theology, spiritual psychology and practical ethics.

Impact and Legacy

Shah Waliullah’s influence extends far beyond his own lifetime and locality. Some of his key legacies include:

• His students and his school of thought (often referred to in scholarly literature as tariqah al-Dihlawi) became foundational for later reform movements in South Asia. University of Malaya Journal

• His emphasis on purifying Muslim practice from non-Islamic accretions, reinforcing Sunnah-based Sufism, and re-anchoring Muslim identity in changing colonial conditions inspired later scholars such as Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Muhammad Iqbal and Abul Aʿla Mawdudi. University of Malaya Journal+1

• His works continue to be studied in Islamic seminaries (madrasas) across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, influencing both traditional and reformist currents.

• In academic history of Islam in South Asia, he is regarded as a mujad­did (renewal-figure) of the 18th century — someone who endeavoured to “revive” Islam in a time of decline and degeneration. Wikipedia

Context: The Muslim World of His Time

Shah Waliullah lived in a period of significant transition for South Asian Muslims: the decline of the Mughal Empire, the rise of regional powers, increasing European colonial influence, and socio-religious crises within Muslim society. tariqshahwaliullah.blogspot.com

He witnessed internal fragmentation among Muslims, moral decline, neglect of knowledge and spirituality, and the intrusion of un-Islamic customs and Hindu influence in some areas. Against this backdrop, he felt the urgency of reform — not merely theological annotation but a comprehensive revival of Muslim community life. His writings often address not just theological issues but also governance, economy, taxation, caliphate, and the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims in multi-faith context.

Criticisms and Complexities

As with any major reformer, Shah Waliullah’s legacy is complex and sometimes contested. Some scholars note that while he called for reform of Sufism, he did not reject Sufism altogether; others argue he remained within the Hanafi-Maturidi tradition and did not advocate radical theological shifts. His views on politics and jihad have also been subject to critical scrutiny. For example, one quote attributed to him (as found in an online quote-archive) states:

“It has become clear to my mind that the kingdom of heaven has predestined that kafirs should be reduced to a state of humiliation and treated with utter contempt…” Quote.org

This and similar statements, though contested in authenticity and context, have caused modern scholars to reflect on his views from a historical-critical lens. Moreover, given the diversity of Muslim thought in South Asia (Sunnis, Shias, Sufis, Ahl-Hadith, Deobandis, Barelvis), his eclectic approach means different groups interpret his teachings in different ways (sometimes as a reformer, sometimes as traditionalist, sometimes as bridging figure).

Why He Matters Today

• In today’s global Muslim community, issues of reform, authenticity of practice, intellectual renewal, and response to colonial/post-colonial conditions remain relevant. Shah Waliullah’s methodology — combining rigorous scholarship, spiritual depth, social analysis and practical reform — offers a model for tackling contemporary challenges.

• For South Asian Muslims in particular, his legacy provides a historical framework for understanding how Islamic thought engaged with colonial decline, internal degeneration and external threats.

• Educationally, his works encourage a balance between ilm (knowledge) and amal (action), between textual learning and spiritual interiority — something many modern Islamic educators strive for.

• Inter-faith and multi-cultural societies can also learn from his attempt to contextualise Islamic teachings without abandoning their principled core: he engaged with the realities of his time (Indian plural society) rather than retreating into isolation.

Conclusion

Shah Waliullah ad-Dehlawi was more than a scholar; he was a reformer, spiritual guide, philosopher, jurist and educator. In a time when the Muslim world of South Asia faced enormous challenges, he offered a vision: of returning to the Qur’an and Sunnah, of learning and spiritual growth, of social justice and collective renewal. His life and works remain a testament to the possibility of thoughtful, rooted reform — reform grounded in tradition yet responsive to the needs of changing times.

While modern readers must critically assess his views (including those coloured by his context), his legacy remains rich: as a bridge between classical Islamic sciences and modern challenges, as a voice for revival, and as a model of scholar-reformer engaged deeply with both the world of ideas and the realities of his society.

Kitab At‑Tasawwuf in Majmu‘ al‑Fatawa of Ibn Taymiyyah

Introduction

Ibn Taymiyyah (Taqī al‐Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al‐Ḥalīm, died 728 AH / 1328 CE) is one of the most influential scholars of classical Islam, particularly noted in Hanbali jurisprudence, theology (aqīdah), prophetic tradition (ḥadīth), and also in his critiques and appreciation of certain aspects of taṣawwuf (often translated "Sufism" or mystical Islam). One of his major works is Majmuʿ al‑Fatāwā (“Collection of His Fatwas / Verdicts”), a comprehensive compendium of his legal, theological, and spiritual rulings, answers, and treatises. Within Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa there is a section or volume dealing with At‑Tasawwuf, “Sufism,” where Ibn Taymiyyah expresses measured judgments—acceptance of some aspects, criticism of others—and provides guidance on the proper path of spiritual conduct in light of the Sharīʿah (law) and the Qurʾān & Sunnah.

This article explores that section: what Ibn Taymiyyah means by taṣawwuf, his categories of Sufis, his criticisms, and what he affirms; and finally, why his treatment remains relevant.

---

What is Taṣawwuf according to Ibn Taymiyyah

First, it is important to clarify that for Ibn Taymiyyah taṣawwuf is not a monolith. It is a broad term that can include a wide range of spiritual practices, inner states, terminologies, and group affiliations. Some of these are entirely consonant with the Sharīʿah; others are innovations (bidʿah) or even deviations that lead away from proper belief or practice.

In Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa, Ibn Taymiyyah often treats taṣawwuf and spiritual wayfaring (sulūk) as related but not identical. While some mystical or spiritual practices can help purify the heart, practice remembrance (dhikr), repentance (tawbah), asceticism (zuhd), etc., these must always be in conformity with revealed sources.

He is especially critical towards practices or beliefs among some Sufi groups which, in his view, contravene the Qurʾān or Sunnah: for example hyperbole in utterances (intoxication language), pantheistic ideas, or innovations in ritual or belief without basis.

---

Ibn Taymiyyah’s Categories of Sufis

In Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa, Ibn Taymiyyah divides Sufis into (at least) three categories, according to how closely their spirituality aligns with Sharīʿah and sound belief. Sunnah Muakada

1. Sufis who are “masha’ikh al‑Islām, followers of Kitāb and Sunnah, Imams of Guidance
   These are early Sufi figures whom Ibn Taymiyyah praises. Examples: Fudayl ibn Iyād, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Sahl al‑Tustarī, Abu Sulaymān al‑Dārānī, Sari al‐Saqaṭī, al‑Junayd al‑Baghdādī, Bishr al‑Ḥāfī, etc. He commends them because they preserved discriminative judgment (ḥaṣb al‑ḥadīd), did not abandon the Sharīʿah even in mystical states, didn’t indulge in practices he judged to be excessive, etc. Sunnah Muakada

2. Sufis whose mystical states (like fanāʾ, sukr, intoxication, etc.) sometimes led them into loss of discrimination
   In these cases, the individuals may have uttered things or done things under mystical experiences that were later regretted or corrected. Their experiences are not wholly rejected, but Ibn Taymiyyah insists on caution: spiritual states must not contradict belief, must not lead to shirk or excess, and must remain under the discipline of the Sharīʿah. Sunnah Muakada

3. Sufis whose practices or beliefs have drifted into innovations or error
   These are the Sufis or spiritual groups whose practices, terminologies, or claims Ibn Taymiyyah finds problematic, especially when they involve beliefs not supported by the Qurʾān, or claims of union with God (wḥdat al‐wujūd), excessive veneration of saints, etc. He is strict about rejecting practices which, in his view, cross the line into what the Sharīʿah prohibits.

---

What Ibn Taymiyyah Affirms

While critical in many respects, Ibn Taymiyyah does not reject spirituality outright. Here are what he affirms and recommends, as drawn from the At‑Taṣawwuf section in Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa:

• Purification of heart: sincerity (ikhlāṣ), discipline of the inner self (nafs), combating pride, envy, hypocrisy.

• Acts of remembrance (dhikr), supplication (duʿāʾ), repentance (tawbah), patience (ṣabr), trust in God (tawakkul). These are essential and are praised when done according to the Qurʾān & Sunnah.

• Ascetic elements: detachment from worldly vanities if they distract from obedience; simplicity of lifestyle; focusing on the Hereafter.

• Guidance of people of knowledge (ulamāʾ) and following them, provided they adhere to correct belief and practice.

These he sees not as optional luxuries, but as parts of what it means to be a believer — though the forms, expressions, and limits differ among individuals.

---

What Ibn Taymiyyah Criticizes

In Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa Ibn Taymiyyah is quite direct about what he deems problematic among some Sufi practices:

• Innovative rituals or customs that have no grounding in scriptural texts.

• Ambiguous or extravagant statements made during spiritual states which may suggest something contrary to belief (like incarnation, union in ways that compromise Tawḥīd).

• Language of intoxication (sukr) when taken literally or improperly—he critiques those who boast of being spiritually “drunk” to the point of losing proper speech or judgment.

• Over‑veneration of saints, excessive visitation of tombs, or seeking intercession in ways he judged to be beyond what was permissible, especially if inflating the status of saints in a way that diminishes the direct servitude owed to God alone.

• Separation from Sharīʿah in spiritual practice: if spiritual claims lead someone to abandon or neglect the outward obligations, or justify disobedience, this is unacceptable.

Ibn Taymiyyah’s overall standard is always: beliefs or practices must not conflict with Qurʾān and Sunnah; spiritual states do not excuse violation of sharīʿah.

---

Methodology and Epistemology

How does Ibn Taymiyyah arrive at his judgments in Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa (including on tasawwuf)? Some features:

• Use of nas (scriptural texts)—Qurʾān and authentic ḥadīth as foundational. He repeatedly refers back to texts to judge beliefs or practices.

• Historical analysis: examining how earlier Sufis lived, what they said, how their disciples received them, whether there was consensus or controversy.

• Reason and analogy: when scriptural text is silent or ambiguous, he uses reasoning (qiyās), analogy, and the principle of public welfare (maḍāriʿ) in fatwas.

• Empirical / practical orientation: Ibn Taymiyyah often notices how ideas play out in practice: whether they help people, whether they lead to confusion, deviation, or benefit. His criticism is not purely theoretical.

Scholars who study Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa note that in his fatwas on tasawwuf, Ibn Taymiyyah shows awareness both of the value of spiritual striving and also the dangers of its excesses. Repositori UIN Alauddin Makassar+2Sunnah Muakada+2

---

Significance and Impact

Why is Ibn Taymiyyah’s treatment of taṣawwuf in Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa significant?

1. Provides a balanced critique
   In an era when many debates about mysticism, saint veneration, or mystical philosophies are polarized, Ibn Taymiyyah’s work is often cited by those on both sides: those defending orthodox mystical practice (within limits), and those who argue against what they see as excesses or innovations.

2. Influence on later scholars
   His fatwas, especially about proper spiritual conduct, intercession, saint veneration, and purifying the heart, have shaped much of later Salafi and reformist thought. Many modern writers refer to his Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa when discussing what is valid or invalid in mystical/spiritual path.

3. Guidance for practitioners
   For Muslims interested in spirituality, Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa offers concrete criteria: which states or practices to embrace, which to avoid; emphasizing that spiritual striving is not separate from correct belief and practice.

4. Defending Tawḥīd and Sunnah
   Ibn Taymiyyah emphasizes that in all spiritual states and experiences, the foundational obligations—belief in one God, following the Prophet’s Sunnah, upholding the rights of scholars, etc.—must not be compromised. The tasawwuf that ignores that is, in his view, spiritually dangerous.

---

Criticisms and Tensions

While many find Ibn Taymiyyah’s approach clarifying, there are also critiques and challenges:

• Some argue that his rejection of certain mystical expressions overlooks or undervalues their symbolic or metaphorical nature in classical Sufi literature.

• Others believe that his categorization sometimes oversimplifies spiritual diversity, especially among non‑Sufi movements or local Sufi orders.

• Tension exists regarding what counts as “innovation”—since community practice and historical developments can blur lines, what is deemed bidʿah by Ibn Taymiyyah may be defended by others as legitimate variation.

These tensions underscore that Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa is itself part of ongoing debate: how to maintain orthodoxy without stifling spiritual depth.

---

Conclusion

Kitab At‑Tasawwuf inside Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa is not a separate standalone book by Ibn Taymiyyah, but a volume or section in the larger compendium where he discusses taṣawwuf, its proper place, its good elements, and its pitfalls.

Ibn Taymiyyah’s perspective is neither wholesale condemnation nor uncritical acceptance. Rather, he draws a boundary: tasawwuf is praiseworthy when aligned with Qurʾān, Sunnah, correct belief, and shariah; but those aspects of mystical practice that veer into excess, depart from the texts, or result in misguidance must be rejected.

For those seeking spiritual enrichment, Ibn Taymiyyah’s At‑Tasawwuf in Majmuʿ al‑Fatawa offers criteria, guidance, and a methodology: one grounded in revelation, informed by history, aware of human psychology, and attentive to both heart and external law.